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by Chris Woodford. Last updated: December 22, 2020.
Once upon a time, the way to get a computer to do something useful was to feedit a stack of cards with holes punched into them. Thankfully, things soon moved on and, by the end of the 20th century, you could get a computer to do things simply bypointing and clicking with a keyboardand a mouse. But the real revolution in making computers easy to use has happened only in thelast decade or so—with the arrival of touch-sensitive screens.Most smartphones, ebook readers, and someMP3 players already work withsimple, touch controls—and some laptops work that waytoo. Touchscreens are intuitively easy to use, but how exactly do they work?
Photo: Touchscreens work by sensing the position of your finger—in a variety of different ways, described below.
Contents
- How touchscreens work
How is a touchscreen different from a keyboard?
A touchscreen is a bitlike an invisible keyboard glued to the front of your computermonitor. To understand how it works, it helps if you knowsomething about how an ordinary keyboard works first.You can find out about that in our article on computer keyboards,but here's a quick reminder.Essentially, every key on a keyboard is an electricalswitch. When you push a keydown, you complete an electric circuit and a current flows. Thecurrent varies according to the key you press and that's how yourcomputer figures out what you're typing.
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Photo: This is the sensitive, switch layer frominside a typical PC keyboard. It rests under the keys and detects whenyou press them. There are three separate layers of plastic here. Two ofthem are covered in electrically conducting metal tracks and there's aninsulating layer between them with holes in it. The dots you can seeare places where the keys press the two conducting layers together. Thelines are electrical connections that allow tiny electric currents toflow when the layers are pressed tightly together.
In a bit more detail, here's what happens. Inside a keyboard, you'll find there are twolayers of electrically conducting plasticseparated by an insulating plastic membrane with holes in it. In fact, there's one holeunderneath each key. When you press a key, you push the top conductorlayer down towards the bottom layer so the two layers meet and touchthrough the hole. A current flows between the layers and the computerknows you've pressed a key. Little springy pieces of rubber underneath each key make them bounce back to their original position,breaking the circuit when you release them.
Touchscreens have to achieve something similar to this on the surface on your computerscreen. Obviously they can't use switches, membranes, and bits ofplastic or they'd block the view of the screen below. So they haveto use more cunning tricks for sensing your touch—completelyinvisibly!
How touchscreens work
Different kinds of touchscreen work in different ways. Some can sense only one fingerat a time and get extremely confused if you try to press in two placesat once. Others can easily detect and distinguish more than one key press atonce. These are some of the main technologies:
Resistive
Resistive touchscreens (currently the most popular technology) worka bit like 'transparent keyboards' overlaid on top of the screen.There's a flexible upper layer of conducting polyester plasticbonded to a rigid lower layer of conducting glass and separatedby an insulatingmembrane. When you press on the screen, you force the polyester totouch the glass and complete a circuit—just like pressing the keyon a keyboard. A chip inside the screen figures out the coordinatesof the place you touched.
When you press a resistive touchscreen, you push two conducting layers togetherso they make contact, a bit like an ordinary computer keyboard.
Capacitive
These screens are made from multiple layers of glass. The innerlayer conductselectricity and so does the outer layer, so effectively the screenbehaves like two electrical conductors separated by an insulator—inother words, a capacitor. When you bring your finger up to thescreen, you alter the electrical field by a certain amount thatvaries according to where your hand is. Capacitive screens can betouched in more than one place at once. Unlike most other typesof touchscreen, they don't work if you touch them with a plasticstylus (because the plastic is an insulator and stops your hand from affecting theelectric field).
In a capacitive touchscreen, the whole screen is like a capacitor. When you bring your finger up close,you affect the electric field that exists between the inner and outer glass.
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Infrared
Just like the magic eye beams in an intruderalarm, an infrared touchscreen uses a gridpattern of LEDs and light-detectorphotocells arrangedon opposite sides of the screen. The LEDs shine infrared light in front of the screen—abit like an invisible spider's web. If you touch the screen at acertain point, you interrupt two or more beams. A microchip insidethe screen can calculate where you touched by seeing which beams youinterrupted. The touchscreen on Sony Reader ebooks (like the onepictured in our photo below) works this way. Since you're interrupting a beam,infrared screens work just as well whether you use your finger or a stylus.
An infrared touchscreen uses the same magic-eye technology that Tom Cruise had to dodge in the movie Mission Impossible. When your fingers move up close, they break invisible beams that pass over the surface of the screen between LEDs on one side and photocells on the other.
Surface Acoustic Wave
Surprisingly, this touchscreen technology detects your fingers using sound instead oflight. Ultrasonic sound waves (too highpitched for humans to hear)are generated at the edges of the screen and reflected back andforth across its surface. When you touch the screen, you interruptthe sound beams and absorb some of their energy. The screen's microchipcontroller figures out from this where exactly you touched thescreen.
A surface-acoustic wave screen is a bit like an infrared screen, but your finger interrupts high-frequency sound beams rippling over the surface instead of invisible light beams.
Near field imaging
Have you noticed how an old-style radiocan buzz and whistle if you move your hand towardit? That's because your body affects the electromagnetic field thatincoming radio waves create in and around the antenna. The closer youget, the more effect you have. Near field imaging (NFI) touchscreenswork asimilar way. As you move your finger up close, you change theelectric field on the glass screen, which instantly registers yourtouch. Much more robust than some of the other technologies, NFIscreens are suitable for rough-and-tough environments (like militaryuse). Unlike most of the other technologies, they can also detecttouches from pens, styluses, or hands wearing gloves.
With a near-field imaging screen, small voltages are applied at the corners, producing an electric field on the surface. Your finger alters the field as it approaches.
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Light pens
Light pens were an early form of touchscreen technology, but they worked in a completely different way tomodern touchscreens. In old-style computer screens, the picture wasdrawn by an electron beam that scanned back and forth,just like in a cathode-ray tube television.The pen contained a photoelectric cell that detectedthe electron beam as it passed by, sending a signal to the computer down a cable.Since the computer knew exactly where the electron beam was at any moment, it could figure outwhere the pen was pointing. Light pens could be used either to select menu items or text from the screen (similarto a mouse) or, as shown in the picture here, to draw computer graphics.
Drawing on a screen with a light pen back in 1973. Although you can't see it from this photo, the light pen isactually connected to the computer by a long electric cable. Photo by courtesy of NASA Ames Research Center (NASA-ARC).